Next, the involvement of necrosis in epi-1-mediated cell death was examined

Next, the involvement of necrosis in epi-1-mediated cell death was examined. Consistently, epi-1 did not induce activation of caspase-3 at any tested time point (Figure 2D). Next, the involvement of necrosis in epi-1-mediated cell death was examined. Extracellular cyclophilin A is considered to be a marker of necrosis [17], and epi-1 effectively increased the levels of cyclophilin A in the culture supernatant (Figure 2A,CCE). In contrast, extracellular cyclophilin A was not increased by stau (Figure 2A,C). Epi-1-treated cells also exhibited propidium iodide incorporation, while stau-treated cells did not (Figure 2F). Furthermore, the necrosis inhibitor, Necrostatin-1 (Nec-1), suppressed epi-1-induced toxicity (Figure 2G), but apoptosis inhibitor Z-VAD-FMK (Z-VAD) did not (Figure 2H). Open in a separate window Figure 2 Epi-1 triggers caspase-independent cell death. (A,C) Cells were treated with epi-1 (6.125 M) or stau (1 M) for 3 h. Supernatants were collected and immunoblotted for cyclophilin A. Cell lysates were collected and immunoblotted for caspase-3 and -actin. (A,B) Band intensities were quantified by ImageJ. (D) Cells were treated with epi-1 for different times, and cell lysates and supernatants were collected and immunoblotted with indicated antibodies. (E) Band intensities were quantified. (F) Cells were treated with epi-1 or stau as described in (A). After stimulation, cells were loaded with propidium iodide (PI; 1 g/mL) for 10 min. After rinsing cells with PBS, PI incorporation was observed by fluorescence microscopy. Cells were pretreated with Necrostatin-1 (Nec-1) (10 M) (G) or Z-VAD-FMK (Z-VAD) (100 M) (H) for 1 h, followed by epi-1 (6.125 M) treatment for 24 h. Cytotoxicity was determined by the trypan blue exclusion assay. * < 0.05 was considered significant. 2.3. Calcium and Calpain are Required for Epi-1-Induced Cell Death Necrosis often involves intracellular calcium overload, which subsequently activates cell death-inducing molecules, such as calpain [18]. Epi-1 treatment elevated the intracellular Fiacitabine calcium level within 15 min, and the Fiacitabine elevation was sustained to 60 min (Figure 3A,B). Calcium chelator BAPTA blocked cell death, suggesting that calcium is necessary for epi-1-mediated cytotoxicity (Figure 3C). Calpain activity was also quickly induced within 15 min (Figure 3D), and suppression of calpain activity by PD151746 inhibited epi-1-mediated cytotoxicity (Figure 3E). Since BAPTA attenuated epi-1-mediated upregulation of calpain activity (Figure 3F), calcium seems to be required for epi-1-mediated activation of calpain. Open in a separate window Figure 3 Calcium-dependent calpain activation is required for epi-1-mediated cytotoxicity. Cells were preloaded with Fluo-4 (5 M) for 15 min, then treated with epi-1 at different points as indicated. Fluorescence of Fluo-4 was observed by fluorescence microscopy (A) and flow cytometry (B). (C) Cells were preincubated with Fiacitabine BAPTA (BA; 10 M) for 1 h, followed by epi-1 for an additional 5 h. Cytotoxicity was assessed by the trypan blue exclusion assay. (D) Cells were preloaded with fluorogenic calpain substrate t-BOC (10 M) for 30 min, followed by epi-1 for the indicated times. (E) Cells were preincubated with PD151746 (PD) for 1 h, followed by epi-1 for an additional 5 h. Cytotoxicity was determined by the trypan blue exclusion assay. (F) Cells were pretreated with BA (10 M) for 1 h, followed by epi-1 for an additional 15 min. Calpain activity was assessed. * < 0.05 was considered significant. 2.4. Epi-1 Induces Mitochondrial Hyperpolarization Next, we analyzed the effect of epi-1 on mitochondrial function by TMRE. We found that epi-1-triggered mitochondrial hyperpolarization occurs within 30 min and is sustained to 3 h (Figure 4ACC). Both BAPTA (Figure 4D,E) and PD151746 (Figure 4F,G) suppressed epi-1-induced mitochondrial hyperpolarization, suggesting that calcium induction of calpain is required for epi-1 to cause mitochondrial hyperpolarization. Open in a separate window Figure 4 Calcium-dependent calpain activation plays an essential role in epi-1-induced mitochondrial hyperpolarization. Cells were treated with epi-1 for the indicated times, followed by incubation with TMRE (100 nM) for 15 min. Fluorescence intensity of TMRE was assessed by fluorescence microscopy (A) and flow cytometry (B,C). Dotted line: Basal TMRE levels. Cells were pretreated with BAPTA (10 M) for 1 h, followed by epi-1 for an additional 0.5 h. TMRE intensity was assessed by fluorescence microscopy (D) and flow cytometry (E). Cells were preincubated with PD151746 (PD) for 1 h, followed by epi-1 for an additional 0.5 h. TMRE intensity Mouse monoclonal to CHD3 was assessed by fluorescence microscopy (F) and flow cytometry (G). All fluorescent microscope images were taken under in 20 magnification. * < 0.05 was considered significant. 2.5. Epi-1 Induces Oxidative Stress and Downregulation of Antioxidant Proteins Intracellular calcium overload has been linked to increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) [19], so we also monitored intracellular ROS. After epi-1 treatment, ROS generation was elevated within 5 min and.

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